Hệ thống Westminster

Nghị viện Anh, thường được biết đến với tên Cung điện Westminster ở, London.

Hệ thống Westminster là hệ thống nhà nước dân chủ nghị viện theo mô hình chính trị của Vương quốc Anh. Thuật ngữ này xuất phát từ Cung điện Westminster, nơi đặt Nghị viện Anh

Hệ thống là một chuỗi qui trình hoạt động của cơ quan lập pháp. Nó được dùng trong các cơ quan lập pháp cấp quốc gia và ở cấp địa thấp hơn ở các các quốc gia thuộc Khối thịnh vượng chung hiện nay và trước đây. Đầu tiên, nó được áp dụng cho các tỉnh bang Canada năm 1848 và sáu vùng thuộc địa ở Úc trong những năm 1855 đến 1890.

Có một số hệ thống nghị viện khác có các quy trình điều hành khác nhau ít nhiều đối với hệ thống Westminster.

Những nét chính

Mặc dầu có những khác biệt nhỏ giữa các phân nhánh, nhìn chung hệ thống Westminster có những đặc điểm quan trọng sau:

• Có một quốc chủ hay nguyên thủ quốc gia có quyền hành pháp trên danh nghĩa hay lý thuyết, và có nhiều quyền bảo lưu khác, nhưng hằng ngày chỉ thực hiện chức năng của một vị thủ lĩnh quốc gia theo nghi thức. Nữ Hoàng Anh, chủ tịch của các quốc gia, hoặc thống sứ của các tiểu bang/tỉnh lỵ là những ví dụ điển hình.

• Người đứng đầu chính phủ (hay đứng đầu hành pháp) là thủ tướng, hay thủ tướng thứ nhất. Người này được vị đứng đầu nhà nước chính thức chỉ định. Trong thực tế, người đứng đầu nhà nước thường là vị chủ tịch của một công đảng chiếm nhiều ghế nhất trong nghị viện.

• Cơ quan hành pháp trong thực tế thường gồm các thành trong lập pháp và các thành viên hành pháp có thâm niên trong nội các chính phủ do thủ tướng lãnh đạo. Những thành viên này thực thi quyền hành pháp của mình nhân danh người có quyền hành pháp trên danh nghĩa.
• Có một nghị viện đối lập (hệ thống đa đảng);

• Có một cơ quan lập pháp được bầu ra, thường là lưỡng viện, trong đó ít nhất một viện được bầu ra, mặc dầu một số hệ thống độc viện vẫn tồn tại; các thành viên lập pháp thường được bầu theo hạt theo thể thức đầu phiếu đa số tương đối (khác với hệ thống đại diện tỉ lệ phổ biến hơn).

• có một hạ nghị viện có quyền bãi nhiệm chính phủ bằng cách từ chối ngân sách, thông qua kiến nghị bất tín nhiệm, và tiến tới một cuộc phổ thông đầu phiếu để chọn một chính phủ mới độc lập.

• một nghị viện có thể bị giải tán và được kêu gọi bầu cử bất cứ lúc nào.

• có đặc quyền cho phép cơ quan lập pháp thảo luận bất cứ đề tài nào mà không sợ phát sinh những phát biểu hay tài liệu có tính bêu xấu từ đó.

• văn bản các cuộc họp, thường được gọi là Hansard. Cơ quan lập pháp có khả năng hủy bỏ một số thảo luận trong những văn bản này.

Hoạt động

The pattern of executive functions within a Westminster System is quite complex. In essence, the head of state, usually a monarch or president, is a ceremonial figurehead who is the theoretical, nominal or de jure source of executive power within the system. In practice, such a figure does not actively exercise executive powers, even though executive authority may be exercised in his/her name.

The head of government, usually called the prime minister or premier, will ideally have the support of a majority in the responsible house, and must in any case be able to ensure the existence of no absolute majority against the government. If the parliament passes a resolution of no confidence, or refuses to pass an important bill such as the budget, then the government must either resign so that a different government can be appointed or seek a parliamentary dissolution so that new general elections may be held in order to re-confirm or deny the government's mandate.

Executive authority within a Westminster System is essentially exercised by the Cabinet, along with more junior ministers, although the head of government usually has the dominant role within the ministry. In the United Kingdom, the sovereign theoretically holds executive authority, even though the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and the Cabinet effectively implement executive powers. In a parliamentary republic like India, the President is the de jure executive, even though executive powers are essentially instituted by the Prime Minister of India and the Hội đồng bộ trưởng.

As an example, the Prime Minister and Cabinet (as the de facto executive body in the system) generally must seek the permission of the head of state when carrying out executive functions. If, for instance the British Prime Minister wished to dissolve parliament in order for a general election to take place, the Prime Minister is constitutionally bound to request permission from the sovereign in order to attain such a wish. This power (along with others such as appointing ministers in the government, appointing diplomats, declaring war, and signing treaties, for example) are known as the Royal Prerogative, which in modern times are exercised by the sovereign solely on the advice of the Prime Minister. Since the British sovereign is a constitutional monarch, he or she abides by the advice of his or her ministers, except when executing reserve powers in times of crisis.

This custom also occurs in other Westminster Systems in the world, in consequence from the influence of British colonial rule. In Commonwealth Realms such as Canada, New Zealand or Australia, the Prime Minister is obligated to seek permission from the Governor-General when implementing executive decisions, in a manner similar to the British practice. An analogous scenario also exists in Commonwealth Republics, such as India or Trinidad and Tobago.

The head of state will often hold meetings with the head of government and cabinet, as a means of keeping abreast of governmental policy and as a means of advising, consulting and warning ministers in their actions. Such a practice takes place in the United Kingdom and India. In the UK, the sovereign holds confidential weekly meetings with the Prime Minister to discuss governmental policy and to offer her opinions and advice on issues of the day. In India, the Prime Minister is constitutionally bound to hold regular sessions with the President, in a similar manner to the aforementioned British practice. In essence, the head of state, as the theoretical executive authority, "reigns but does not rule". This phrase means that the head of state's role in government is generally ceremonial and as a result does not directly institute executive powers. The reserve powers of the head of state are sufficient to ensure compliance with some of their wishes. However, the extent of such powers varies from one country to another and is often a matter of controversy.

Such an executive arrangement first emerged in the United Kingdom. Historically, the British sovereign held and directly exercised all executive authority. George I of Great Britain was the first British monarch to delegate some executive powers to a Prime Minister and a cabinet of the ministers, largely because he was also the monarch of Hanover in Germany and did not speak fluent English. Over time, arrangement continued to exercise executive authority on the sovereign's behalf. Such a concept was reinforced in The English Constitution (1876) by Walter Bagehot, who emphasised the "dignified" and "efficient" aspects of government. In this sense Bagehot was stating that the sovereign should be a focal point for the nation, while the PM and cabinet actually undertook executive decisions.

Vai trò của nguyên thủ quốc gia

The head of state or his/her representative (such as a governor general), formally invites the head of government to form a government (that is, an administration). In the UK, this is known as kissing hands. There are notable exceptions to the above in the Republic of Ireland, where the President of Ireland has a mandate through direct election, and the Taoiseach (prime minister) prior to appointment by the President of Ireland is nominated by the democratically elected lower house, Dáil Éireann.

Because of the mandate and the potentially significant constitutional powers of the Irish president, some authorities believe the Irish constitution is as similar to semi-presidential systems as it is to Westminster. Similarly, under the constitutions of some Commonwealth countries, a president or Governor-General may possess clearly significant reserve powers. One example is the Australian constitutional crisis of 1975, in which the Governor-General dismissed the Prime Minister, who held a majority in the Australian House of Representatives. Because of differences in their written constitutions, the formal powers of presidents and Governors-General vary greatly from one country to another. However, as Governors-General are not directly elected, they lack the popular mandate held, for example, by an Irish president. Because of this, Governors-General rarely risk the public disapproval which could result from their making unilateral and/or controversial uses of their powers.

Although the dissolution of the legislature and the call for new elections is formally done by the head of state, by convention the head of state acts according to the wishes of the head of government.

In exceptional circumstances the head of state may either refuse a dissolution request, as in the Canadian King-Byng Affair, or dismiss the government, as in the Australian crisis of 1975. Either action is likely to bend or break existing conventions. The Lascelles Principles were an attempt to create a convention to cover similar situations, but have not been tested in practice.

Nội các chính phủ

In The English Constitution, Bagehot emphasised the divide of the constitution into two components, the Dignified (that part which is symbolic) and the Efficient (the way things actually work and get done), and called the Efficient "Cabinet Government". Although there have been many works since emphasising different aspects of the "Efficient", no one has seriously questioned Bagehot's premise that the divide exists in the Westminster system.

Members of the Cabinet are collectively seen as responsible for government policy. All Cabinet decisions are made by consensus, a vote is rarely taken in a Cabinet meeting. All ministers, whether senior and in the Cabinet, or junior ministers, must support the policy of the government publicly regardless of any private reservations. When a Cabinet reshuffle is imminent, a lot of time is taken up in the conversations of politicians and in the news media, speculating on who will, or will not, be moved in and out of the Cabinet by the Prime Minister, because the appointment of ministers to the Cabinet, and threat of dismissal from the Cabinet, is the single most powerful constitutional power which a Prime Minister has in the political control of the Government in the Westminster system.

Linked to Cabinet government is the idea, at least in theory, that ministers are responsible for the actions of their departments. It is no longer considered to be an issue of resignation if the actions of members of their department, over whom the minister has no direct control, make mistakes or formulate procedures which are not in accordance with agreed policy decisions. One of the major powers of the Prime Minister under the Westminster system is to decide when a fellow minister is accountable for the actions of a department.

The Official Opposition and other major political parties not in the Government, will mirror the governmental organisation with their own Shadow Cabinet made up of Shadow Ministers.

Lưỡng viện và độc viện

Trong hệ thống này, một số thành viên trong nghị viện được bầu thông qua lá phiếu phổ thông, trong khi số khác được chỉ định. Tất cả các nghị viện trên cơ sở Westminster đều có hạ viện có quyền lực tựa như ở Hạ Nghị viện Vương quốc Anh, bao gồm các đại diện địa phương được bầu ra. Đa số có một thượng viện nhỏ hơn có thành viên được chọn bằng nhiều cách:

• Các thành viên của nội các chính phủ hay thủ tướng (như ở Canada, hay Anh)
• Bầu cử trực tiếp (Úc)
• Được bầu thông qua chính quyền địa phương (Ấn Độ)
• Có tính kế thừa (91 thành viên trong Thượng Viện Anh)

In Britain, the lower house is the de facto legislative body, while the upper house practices restraint in exercising its constitutional powers and serves as a consultative body. In other Westminster countries, however, the upper house can sometimes exercise considerable power.

Some Westminster-derived parliaments are unicameral for two reasons:

• some, such as the Parliament of New Zealand have abolished their upper houses
• others have never had them, such as the Parliament of Malta and the Papua New Guinea Parliament.

Australia is, in many respects, a unique hybrid with influences from the United States Constitution as well as from the traditions and conventions of the Westminster system. Australia is exceptional because the government faces a fully elected upper house, the Senate, which must be willing to pass its budgets. Although government is formed in the lower house, the House of Representatives, the support of the Senate is necessary in order to govern. The Senate maintains the ability similar to that held by the British House of Lords, prior to the enactment of the Parliament Act 1911, to block supply against the government of the day. A government that is unable to obtain supply can be dismissed by the Governor-General: however, this is generally considered a last resort and is a highly controversial decision to take, given the conflict between the traditional concept of confidence as derived from the lower house and the ability of the Senate to block supply. Many political scientists have held that the Australian system of government was consciously devised as a blend or hybrid of the Westminster and the United States systems of government, especially since the Australian Senate is a powerful upper house like the U.S. Senate; this notion is expressed in the nickname "the Washminster mutation" . The ability of upper houses to block supply also features in the parliaments of most Australian states.

Chỉ trích

The office of a Westminster prime minister is often criticised for being too powerful, as he or she effectively determines when "consensus" is reached in cabinet, cabinet members do not have much independence to actively disagree with government policy, even for productive reasons. A cabinet member may be forced to resign simply for opposing one aspect of a government's agenda, even though they agreed with the majority of other proposals. Westminster cabinets also have a tendency to be very large. As cabinet is the chief organ of power and influence in the government, members of parliament may actively lobby for a position in cabinet once their party is elected to power. The Prime Minister, who is also party leader, will have an active interest in promoting as many these members from his own party as possible.

Westminster governments usually do not have a very strong tradition of separation of powers, in practice. Though the head of state, be it governor-general, monarch, or president, will have nominal powers to "check" those of the prime minister, in practice these individuals are usually regarded as little more than figureheads who are not expected to actively intervene in day-to-day politics. It must be noted, however, that Prime ministers under any Westminster system do not have ample freedom to appoint a large variety of individuals, such as judges, cabinet ministers, and other senior bureaucrats.

But it must also be remembered that prime ministers can usually do only as much as public opinion and the balance of party membership of parliament will let them do. And it is relatively rare that a prime minister will have a big enough majority to cancel opposition from smaller parties; in practice, government in most parliamentary systems is made up of coalitions, and prime ministers must keep the coalitions happy.

The threat posed by non-confidence votes is often used to justify extremely well-disciplined legislative parties in Westminster systems. In order to ensure the government always has the confidence of the majority of the house, the political culture of Westminster nations often makes it highly unusual for a legislator to vote against their party. Critics argue this in turn undermines the freedom and importance of Members of Parliament (MPs) in day-to-day legislating, making cabinet the only organ of government where individual legislators can aspire to influence the decisions of the government.

Most senior policy will be made at the cabinet level, regardless of what individual MPs may or may not decide in committee, thus reducing the strength of committees. Their greatest power is often the ability to force a government to reveal certain pieces of information.

Những quốc gia sử dụng

Tòa nhà Nghị Viện Sansad Bhavan ở Delhi, Ấn Độ

Nghị Viện Pakistan

Tòa nhà Nghị Viện ở Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Danh sách các quốc gia sử dụng ý tưởng hệ thống Westminster:

• Antigua and Barbuda
• Australia
• Bahamas
• Bangladesh
• Barbados
• Belize
• Bermuda
• Canada
• Dominica
• Grenada
• Haiti
• India
• Ireland
• Israel
• Jamaica
• Japan
• Malaysia
• Malta
• Mauritius
• Nauru
• New Zealand
• Pakistan
• Papua New Guinea
• Saint Kitts and Nevis
• Saint Lucia
• Singapore
• Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
• Trinidad và Tobago
• Tuvalu
• United Kingdom
• Vanuatu

Xem thêm

• Nghị Viện Anh
• Hiến Chương Magna Carta
• Dự luật về quyền 1689
• Lịch sử của hệ thống nghị viện

Bibliography

• The English Constitution, Walter Bagehot, 1876. ISBN 0-521-46535-4, ISBN 0-521-46942-2.
• British Cabinet Government, Simon James, Pub Routledge, 1999. ISBN 0-415-17977-7.
• Prime Minister & Cabinet Government, Neil MacNaughton, 1999. ISBN 0-340-74759-5.

Liên kết ngoài

• The Twilight of Westminster? Electoral Reform & its Consequences, Pippa Norris, 2000.