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Đối với các định nghĩa khác, xem Impale (disambiguation).

Bản chạm khắc của Justus Lipsius mô tả một người đàn ông bị xử tử bằng đóng cọc.

Cọc xiên người hay đóng cọc là một phương pháp tra tấn, hành hình tội phạm bằng cách dùng một vật thể sắc nhọn, chẳng hạn cọc, cột, giáo, móc, gây ra chấn thương xuyên thấu hoặc tác động, đục thủng một phần thân cơ thể. Hình phạt này thường chỉ được áp dụng cho những tội danh "chống lại nhà nước". Trong nhiều nền văn hóa, thần thoại cũng như các sản phẩm nghệ thuật khác nhau, đóng cọc là phương pháp hành hình khắc nghiệt, tàn bạo nhất. Vào thời chiến, nhiều quốc gia sử dụng nó như một công cụ để đàn áp, khủng bố giới bất đồng cũng như trừng phạt những kẻ phản quốc hoặc bất tuân quân lệnh.

Những tội danh chịu tác động của phương thức xử tử này bao gồm âm mưu thực hiện những vụ trộm cướp chống lại chính sách an toàn của nhà nước trong giao thương cũng như vận tải, cướp mộ, vi phạm chính sách hoặc độc quyền của nhà nước hoặc phá vỡ các tiêu chuẩn buôn bán. Nhiều lý do văn hóa, tình dục và tôn giáo cũng được đặt lên bàn cân phán xét của phương thức ghê rợn này.

Các tài liệu tham khảo về phương thức hành hình này được tìm thấy sớm nhất ở Babylonia và Đế quốc Tân Assyria vào thế kỷ 18 trước Công nguyên.

Các phương thức thực hiện

Đóng cọc theo chiều dọc

Trong nhiều trường hợp, việc xiên cọc một cá nhân theo chiều dọc đã được ghi nhận. Thương gia Jean de Thevenot đã cung cấp một báo cáo mục kích trực tiếp sự kiện này vào thế kỉ thứ 17 ở Ai Cập. Theo đó, một người đàn ông Do Thái lĩnh án tử hình vì cân gian trong buôn bán:

Họ bắt tội nhân nằm sấp xuống, trói hai tay anh ta lại, rồi họ rạch một đường nơi hậu môn anh ta, nhét vào trong ấy một nhúm hồ bột chuẩn bị sẵn để cầm máu. Sau đó, họ bôi mỡ vào một cái cọc đã được vót nhọn và sắc rồi thúc mạnh vào phần dưới của anh ta. Họ dùng một cái búa to để đóng cho nó sâu vào bên trong, cứ thế cho đến khi chiếc cọc xuyên qua, nhô ra từ ngực, vai hoặc đầu tử tội. Lúc ấy, họ sẽ nâng anh ta lên và dựng chiếc cọc cắm dở sâu xuống đất rồi bỏ mặc anh ta ở đấy trong vòng một ngày trời. Có hôm tôi bắt gặp một tử tội vật vã trên chiếc cọc rào trong ba giờ đồng hồ. Anh ta sẽ không chết ngay, vì chiếc cọc đâm không đủ sâu để xuyên ra ngoài bất kỳ phần nào trên cơ thể. Những kẻ thừa lệnh cũng dùng một sợi giây, một cái giá nhằm cố định, không cho sức nặng cơ thể khiến anh ta lún sâu thêm xuống chiếc cọc, tránh cho anh ta chết ngay tức thì. Anh ta rên rỉ vì đau đớn, đung đưa qua lại như vậy trong nhiều giờ, nhăn nhó cầu xin những người lạ mặt đi ngang hãy kết liễu anh ta đi. Sau bữa trưa, Quốc vương sai người đến giải thoát cho anh ta, đơn giản bằng cách làm cho chiếc cọc xuyên qua ngực. Xác anh ta treo lủng lẳng ở đó đến sáng hôm sau, cho đến khi có người đến gỡ nó xuống vì bốc mùi hôi thối.

Thời gian sống sót

Bức tranh treo tường trên trần nhà ở Avudaiyarkoil tại quận Pudukottai, Tamil Nadu, Ấn Độ mô tả một cảnh đóng cọc.

Khoảng thời gian ghi nhận sống sót của một cá nhân khi bị đóng cọc thường không cố định, có thể chỉ kéo dài vài giây hoặc vài phút, có trường hợp vài giờ. Tuy nhiên vẫn có trường hợp kéo dài từ 1 đến 3 ngày. Các lãnh chúa Hà Lan tại Batavia dường như đặc biệt thành thạo trong việc kéo dài thời gian sống. Có người từng chứng kiến một người đàn ông sống sót sau 6 ngày ghim trong cọc, vài người khác thì nghe các thầy lang địa phương bảo rằng một số người có thể sống sót sau 8 ngày. Yếu tố quan trọng, có lẽ quyết định trực tiếp đến thời gian sống sót dường như chính là cách thức đặt cọc: Nếu chiếc cọc đi vào các bộ phận "bên trong", các cơ quan nội tạng quan trọng có thể dễ dàng bị phá hủy, dẫn đến cái chết nhanh chóng. Tuy nhiên, bằng cách để chiếc cọc men theo chiều dài cột sống, quá trình xử tử sẽ không làm tổn thương các nội quan và tử tội có thể sống sót trong vài ngày.

Theo chiều ngang

Ngoài ra, cọc xiên người cũng có thể được thực hiện theo chiều ngang, chiều từ trước ra sau, có nghĩa là thông qua bụng, ngực hoặc xuyên trực tiếp qua tim đến lưng hoặc ngược lại.

Ở Đế quốc La Mã thần thánh (và nhiều nơi khác ở Trung / Đông Âu ), những người phụ nữ giết trẻ sơ sinh của họ được đặt trong những ngôi mộ mở, và những chiếc cọc được đập vào trái tim họ, đặc biệt nếu trường hợp của họ có bất kỳ ngụ ý nào về phù thủy . Một mô tả chi tiết về một cuộc hành quyết được thực hiện theo cách này xuất phát từ Košice thế kỷ 17 (lúc đó ở Hungary, nay thuộc miền đông Slovakia). Đó là vụ án xử tử một người phụ nữ vì tội giết trẻ sơ sinh được thực hiện bởi một kẻ hành quyết và hai trợ lý. Đầu tiên, họ sẽ đào sẵn một cái hố sâu một sải tay rưỡi và đặt người phụ nữ vào trong đó. Họ sẽ cố định hai tay hai chân của cô bằng cách đóng những chiếc đinh xuyên qua chúng. Tên đao phủ sau đó đặt một bụi gai nhỏ trên mặt cô. Sau đó, hắn ta cầm một cây gậy ấn lên ngực cô để đánh dấu vị trí trái tim, trong khi những trợ lý của hắn sẽ lấp đất lên người phụ nữ nhưng vẫn chừa lại phần đầu nhô lên khỏi lớp đất theo lệnh của giáo sĩ, bởi vì nếu không thì cô sẽ chết ngay. Khi những tay trợ lý lấp hết đất lên rồi, tên đao phủ đã dùng kẹp lấy ra một cây gậy làm bằng sắt đã được nung nóng đỏ. Hắn sẽ đặt cây gậy sắt phát sáng bên cạnh cây gậy gỗ lúc nãy. Khi một trong những trợ lý của tay đao phủ đập cây gậy sắt vào, người trợ lý kia sẽ trút một nắm đất lên cái rãnh dưới đầu người phụ nữ. Người ta chỉ nghe được vỏn vẹn một tiếng hét, rồi mặt đất hơi rung chuyển lên trên một lát trước khi mọi thứ kết thúc.

Biến thể

Gaunching

Hình ảnh gốc lấy từ phiên bản năm 1741 của Tournefort: "Gaunche, một loại hình phạt được sử dụng trong cộng đồng người Thổ Nhĩ Kỳ."

Joseph Pitton de Tournefort, trong chuyến du hành nghiên cứu về thực vật học đến Levant những năm 1700–1702 đã có dịp chứng kiến phương thức đóng cọc thông thường, nhưng cũng kịp quan sát một phương thức khác gọi là "gaunching". Tử tội sẽ bị treo lên trên một sợi dây thừng và gắn cơ thể vào chiếc móc kim loại sắc nhọn. Sợi dây sau đó sẽ được thả ra cho rơi tự do. Phụ thuộc vào độ sâu của lưỡi câu khi xâm nhập vào cơ thể, anh ta có thể sống sót trong tình trạng bị xiên trong vài ngày. Trước thời đại của Tournefort 40 năm, de Thévenot cũng đề cập đến một phương thức gần như tương tự, tuy nhiên nó hiếm khi được sử dụng vì quá tàn nhẫn. Năm 1579, tức là trước cả thời của Thevenot đến 80 năm, Hans Jacob Breuning von Buchenbach cũng tận mục sở thị một biến thể khác của nghi thức này. Theo đó, một cái móc sắt lớn được cố định trên thanh ngang của giá treo cổ và tử tội sẽ bị buộc vào cái móc này. Chiếc móc sẽ đâm xuyên qua người anh ta từ bụng đến lưng. Điều này có nghĩa là tử tội sẽ hoàn toàn lơ lửng trên không trung với tay, chân và đầu hướng xuống phía dưới. Đứng trên đỉnh của thanh ngang, tên đao phủ sẽ thực hiện vô số đòn tra tấn đối với người đàn ông ở dưới mình.

Hooks in the city wall

While gaunching as de Tournefort describes involves the erection of a scaffold, it seems that in the city of Algiers, hooks were embedded in the city walls, and on occasion, people were thrown upon them from the battlements.

Thomas Shaw, who was chaplain for the Levant Company stationed at Algiers during the 1720s, describes the various forms of executions practiced as follows:

... but the Moors and Arabs are either impaled for the same crime, or else they are hung up by the neck, over the battlements of the city walls, or else they are thrown upon the chingan or hooks that are fixed all over the walls below, where sometimes they break from one hook to another, and hang in the most exquisite torments, thirty or forty hours.

According to one source, these hooks in the wall as an execution method were introduced with the construction of the new city gate in 1573. Before that time, gaunching as described by de Tournefort was in use. As for the actual frequency of throwing persons on hooks in Algiers, Capt. Henry Boyde notes that in his own 20 years of captivity there, he knew of only one case where a Christian slave who had murdered his master had met that fate, and "not above" two or three Moors besides. Taken captive in 1596, the barber-surgeon William Davies relates something of the heights involved when thrown upon hooks (although it is somewhat unclear if this relates specifically to the city of Algiers, or elsewhere in the Barbary States): "Their ganshing is after this manner: he sitteth upon a wall, being five fathoms high, within two fathoms of the top of the wall; right under the place where he sits, is a strong iron hook fastened, being very sharp; then he is thrust off the wall upon this hook, with some part of his body, and there he hangeth, sometimes two or three days, before he dieth." Davies adds that "these deaths are very seldom", but that he had personally witnessed it.

Hanged by the ribs

"A Negro Hung Alive by the Ribs to a Gallows," by William Blake. Originally published in Stedman's Narrative.

A slightly variant way of executing people by means of impalement was to force an iron meat hook beneath a person's ribs and hang him up to die slowly. This technique was in 18th-century Ottoman-controlled Bosnia called the cengela, but the practice is also attested in 1770s Dutch Suriname as a punishment meted out to rebellious slaves.

Bamboo torture

Bài chi tiết: Bamboo torture

A recurring horror story on many websites and popular media outlets is that Japanese soldiers during World War II inflicted bamboo torture upon prisoners of war. The victim was supposedly tied securely in place above a young bamboo shoot. Over several days, the sharp, fast growing shoot would first puncture, then completely penetrate the victim's body, eventually emerging through the other side. However, no conclusive evidence exists that this form of impalement ever actually happened.

History

Antiquity

Mesopotamia and the ancient Near East

The earliest known use of impalement as a form of execution occurred in civilizations of the ancient Near East. The Code of Hammurabi, promulgated about 1772 BC by the Babylonian king Hammurabi specifies impaling for a woman who killed her husband for the sake of another man. In the late Isin/Larsa period, from about the same time, it seems that, in some city states, mere adultery on the wife's part (without murder of her husband mentioned) could be punished by impalement. From the royal archives of the city of Mari, most of it also roughly contemporary to Hammurabi, it is known that soldiers taken captive in war were on occasion impaled. Roughly contemporary with Babylonia under Hammurabi, king Siwe-Palar-huhpak of Elam made official edicts in which he threatened the allies of his enemies with impalement, among other terrible fates. For acts of perceived great sacrilege, some individuals, in diverse cultures, have been impaled for their effrontery. For example, roughly 1200 BC, merchants of Ugarit express deep concern to each other that a fellow citizen is to be impaled in the Phoenician town Sidon, due to some "great sin" committed against the patron deity of Sidon.

Pharaonic Egypt

During Dynasty 19, Merneptah had Libu prisoners of war impaled ("caused to be set upon a stake") to the south of Memphis, following an attempted invasion of Egypt during his Regnal Year 5. The relevant determinative for ḫt ("stake") depicts an individual transfixed through the abdomen. Other Egyptian kings employing impalements include Sobekhotep II, Akhenaten, Seti, and Ramesses IX.

Neo-Assyrian Empire

Impalement of Judeans in a Neo-Assyrian relief

Palace at Kalhu (Nimrud) of Assyrian King Tiglath-Pileser III (720-741 BCE): impalement during assault on a town

Evidence by carvings and statues is found as well from the Neo-Assyrian empire (c. 934–609 BCE). The image of the impaled Judeans is a detail from the public commemoration of the Assyrian victory in 701 BC after the Siege of Lachish, under King Sennacherib (r. 705–681 BC), who proceeded similarly against the inhabitants of Ekron during the same campaign. From Sennacherib's father Sargon II's time (r. 722–705 BCE), a relief from his palace at Khorsabad shows the impalement of 14 enemies during an attack on the city of Pazashi. A peculiarity about the "Neo-Assyrian" way of impaling was that the stake was "driven into the body immediately under the ribs", rather than along the full body length. For the Neo-Assyrians, mass executions seem to have been not only designed to instill terror and to enforce obedience, but also, it can seem, as proofs of their might that they took pride in. Neo-Assyrian King Ashurnasirpal II (r. 883–859 BC) was evidently proud enough of his bloody work that he committed it to monument and eternal memory as follows:

I cut off their hands, I burned them with fire, a pile of the living men and of heads over against the city gate I set up, men I impaled on stakes, the city I destroyed and devastated, I turned it into mounds and ruin heaps, the young men and the maidens in the fire I burned

Paul Kern, in his (1999) "Ancient Siege Warfare", provides some statistics on how different Neo-Assyrian kings from the times of Ashurnasirpal II commemorated their punishments of rebels.

Although impalement of rebels and enemies is particularly well-attested from Neo-Assyrian times, the 14th-century BCE Mitanni king Shattiwaza charges his predecessor, the usurper Shuttarna III for having delivered unto the (Middle) Assyrians several nobles, who had them promptly impaled. Some scholars have said, though, that it is only with king Ashur-bel-kala (r. 1074–1056) that we have solid evidence that punishments like flaying and impaling came into use. From the Middle Assyrian period, we have evidence about impalement as a form of punishment relative to other types of perceived crimes as well. The law code discovered and deciphered by Dr. Otto Schroeder contains in its paragraph 51 the following injunction against abortion:

If a woman with her consent brings on a miscarriage, they seize her, and determine her guilt. On a stake they impale her, and do not bury her; and if through the miscarriage she dies, they likewise impale her and do not bury her.

Achaemenid Persia

Punishments of captured rebels against Achamenied dynasty is recorded in Behistun Inscription by King Darius which contains mutilation and Impaling the captives, Leaders of the rebellions from different colonies of ancient Persia are shown in chains from neck to legs, Gaumāta lays under the boot of Darius

The Greek historian Herodotus recounts that, when Darius I, king of Persia, conquered Babylon, he impaled 3000 Babylonians. In the Behistun Inscription, Darius himself boasts of having impaled his enemies. Darius speaks proudly of the ruthlessness with which these revolts were put down. In Babylon Nidintu-Bel was impaled along with 49 of his companions:

Behistun Inscription

Then in Babylon I impaled that Nidintu-Bel and the nobles who were with him, I executed forty-nine, this is what I did in Babylon

Image of Phraortes on Behistun Inscription in chains, the cuneiform reads "This is Phraortes, He lied saying I am Khshathrita of the dynasty of Cyaxares, I am king in Media"

In 522 BCE Phraortes proclaimed that he was a descendant of the Median king Cyaxares and took the throne, he seized Ecbatana, the capital of Media and rebelled against the Achamenied yoke, this revolt was Suppressed by Darius king of Persia and Phraortes was captured and Impaled:

Behistun Inscription

Darius the King says: Thereafter this Phraortes with a few horsemen fled, a district named Raga, in Media along there he went off, Thereafter I sent an army in pursuit Phraortes, seized, was led to me. I cut off his nose and ears and tongue, and put out one eye he was kept bound at my palace entrance, all the people saw him. Afterward I impaled him at Ecbatana and the men who were his foremost followers, those at Ecbatana within the fortress I (flayed and) hung out (their hides, stuffed with straw

Biblical evidence

A Bible passage in the Book of Esther concerning the fate of the 5th-century BC Persian minister Haman and his ten sons has been treated differently by different translators, leading to an ambiguity as to whether they were impaled or hanged. The passage explains that Haman conspired to have all the Jews in the empire killed but his plan was thwarted, and he was given the punishment he had thought to mete out to Mordecai. The English Standard Version of Esther 5:14 describes this as hanging, whereas The New International Reader's version opts for impalement. The Assyriologist Paul Haupt opts for impalement in his 1908 essay "Critical notes on Esther", while Benjamin Shaw has an extended discussion of the topic on the website ligonier.org from 2012.

Other passages in the Bible may allude to the practice of impalement, such as II Samuel 21:9 concerning the fate of the sons of Saul, where some English translations use the verb "impale", but others use "hang".

Although we lack conclusive evidence either way for whether Hebrew law allowed for impalement, or for hanging (whether as a mode of execution or for display of the corpse), the Neo-Assyrian method of impalement as seen in carvings could, perhaps, equally easily be seen as a form of hanging upon a pole, rather than focusing upon the stake's actual penetration of the body.

Rome

From John Granger Cook, 2014: "Stipes is Seneca's term for the object used for impalement. This narrative and his Ep. 14.5 are the only two textually explicit references to impalement in Latin texts:"

I see crosses there, not just of one kind but made differently by different [fabricators]; some individuals suspended their victims with heads inverted toward the ground; some drove a stake (stipes) through their excretory organs/genitals; others stretched out their [victims'] arms on a patibulum [cross bar]; I see racks, I see lashes ...

Video istic cruces ne unius quidem generis sed aliter ab aliis fabricatas; capite quidam conuersos in terram suspendere, alii per obscena stipitem egerunt, alii brachia patibulo explicuerunt; video fidiculas, video uerbera ...

Europe

Transversal impalement

Within the Holy Roman Empire, in article 131 of the 1532 Constitutio Criminalis Carolina, the following punishment was stated for women found guilty of infanticide. Generally, they should be drowned, but the law code allowed for, in particularly severe cases, that the old punishment could be implemented. That is, the woman would be buried alive, and then a stake would be driven through her heart. Similarly, burial alive, combined with transversal impalement is attested as an early execution method for people found guilty of adultery. The 1348 statutes of Zwickau allowed punishment of an adulterous couple in the following way: They were to be placed on top of each other in a grave, with a layer of thorns between them. Then, a single stake was to be hammered through them. A similar punishment by impalement for a proven male adulterer is mentioned in a 13th-century ordinance for Bohemian mining town Jihlava (then and German Iglau), whereas in a 1340 Vienna statute, the husband of a woman caught in flagrante in adultery could, if he wished to, demand that his wife and her lover be impaled, or alternatively demand a monetary restitution. Occasionally, women found guilty of witchcraft have been condemned to be impaled. In 1587 Kiel, 101-year-old Sunde Bohlen was, on being condemned as a witch, buried alive, and afterwards had a stake driven through her heart.

Rapists of virgins and children are also attested to have been buried alive, with a stake driven through them. In one such judicial tradition, the rapist was to be placed in an open grave, and the rape victim was ordered to make the three first strokes on the stake herself; the executioners then finishing the impalement procedure. Serving as an example of the fate of a child molester, in August 1465 in Zurich, Switzerland, Ulrich Moser was condemned to be impaled, for having sexually violated six girls between the ages four and nine. His clothes were taken off, and he was placed on his back. His arms and legs were stretched out, each secured to a pole. Then a stake was driven through his navel down into the ground. Thereafter, people left him to die.

Longitudinal impalement

Cases of longitudinal impalement typically occur in the context of war or as a punishment for robbery, the latter being attested to as the practice in Central and Eastern Europe.

Individuals accused of collaborating with the enemy have, on occasion, been impaled. In 1632 during the Thirty Years' War, the German officer Fuchs was impaled on suspicion of defecting to the Swedes, a Swedish corporal was likewise impaled for trying to defect to the Germans. In 1654, under the Ottoman siege of the Venetian garrison at Crete, several peasants were impaled for supplying provisions to the besieged. Likewise in 1685, some Christians were impaled by the Hungarians for having provided supplies to the Turks.

In 1677, a particularly brutal German General Kops leading the forces of Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I who wanted to keep Hungary dominated by the Germans, rather than allow it to become dominated by the Turks, began impaling and quartering his Hungarian subjects/opponents. An opposing general on the Hungarian side, Wesselényi, responded in kind, by flaying alive Imperial troops, and fixing sharp iron hooks in fortress walls, upon which he threw captured Germans to be impaled. Finally, Emperor Leopold I had enough of the mutual bloodshed, and banished Kops in order to establish a needed cessation of hostilities. After the Treaty of The Hague (1720), Sicily fell under Habsburg rule, but the locals deeply resented the German overlords. One parish priest (who exhorted his parishioners to kill the Germans) is said to have broken into joy when a German soldier arrived at his village, exclaiming that a whole eight days had gone by since he had last killed a German, and shot the soldier off his horse. The priest was later impaled. In the short-lived 1784 Horea Revolt against the Austrians and Hungarians, the rebels gained hold of two officers, whom they promptly impaled. On their side, the imperial troops got hold of Horea's 13-year-old son, and impaled him. That seems to have merely inflamed the rebel leader's determination, although the revolt was quashed shortly afterwards. After the revolt was crushed by early 1785, some 150 rebels are said to have been impaled.

From 1748 onwards, German regiments organized manhunts on "robbers" in Hungary/Croatia, impaling those who were caught.

Heinous murderers

Occasionally, individual murderers were perceived to have been so heinous that standard punishments like beheading or being broken on the wheel were regarded as incommensurate with their crimes, and extended rituals of execution that might include impalement were devised. An example is that of Pavel Vašanský (Paul Wasansky in German transcript), who was executed on 1 March 1570 in Ivančice in present-day Czech Republic, on account of 124 confessed murders (he was a roaming highwayman). He underwent a particularly gruelling execution procedure: first, his limbs were cut off and his nipples were ripped off with glowing pincers; he was then flayed, impaled and finally roasted alive. A pamphlet that purports to give Wasansky's verbatim confession, does not record how he was apprehended, nor what means of torture was used to extract his confessions.

Other such accounts of "heinous murderers" in which impalement is a prominent element include cases in 1504 and 1519, the murderer nicknamed Puschpeter executed in 1575 for killing thirty people, including six pregnant women whose unborn children he ate in the hope of thereby acquiring invisibility, the head of the Pappenheimer family in 1600, and an unnamed murderer executed in Breslau in 1615, who under torture had confessed to 96 acts of murder by arson.

Vlad the Impaler

Woodblock print of Vlad III "Dracula" attending a mass impalement

During the 15th century, Vlad III ("Dracula"), Prince of Wallachia, is credited as the first notable figure to prefer this method of execution during the late medieval period, and became so notorious for its liberal employment that among his several nicknames he was known as Vlad the Impaler. After being orphaned, betrayed, forced into exile and pursued by his enemies, he retook control of Wallachia in 1456. He dealt harshly with his enemies, especially those who had betrayed his family in the past, or had profited from the misfortunes of Wallachia. Though a variety of methods were employed, he has been most associated with his use of impalement. The liberal use of capital punishment was eventually extended to Saxon settlers, members of a rival clan, and criminals in his domain, whether they were members of the boyar nobility or peasants, and eventually to any among his subjects that displeased him. Following the multiple campaigns against the invading Ottoman Turks, Vlad would never show mercy to his prisoners of war. After The Night Attack of Vlad Țepeș in mid-June 1462 failed to assassinate the Ottoman sultan, the road to Târgoviște, the capital of Vlad's principality of Wallachia, eventually became inundated in a "forest" of 20,000 impaled and decaying corpses, and it is reported that Mehmet II's invading army of Turks turned back to Constantinople in 1462 after encountering thousands of impaled corpses along the Danube River. Woodblock prints from the era portray his victims impaled from either the frontal or the dorsal aspect, but not vertically.

Ottoman Empire

Longitudinal impalement is an execution method often attested within the Ottoman Empire, for a variety of offenses, it was done mostly as a warning to others or to terrify.

Siege of Constantinople

The Ottoman Empire used impalement during, and before, the last siege of Constantinople in 1453. During the buildup phase to the great siege the year before, in 1452, the sultan declared that all ships sailing up or down through the Bosphorus had to anchor at his fortress there, for inspection. One Venetian captain, Antonio Rizzo, sought to defy the ban, but his ship was hit by a cannonball. He and his crew were picked up from the waters, the crew members to be beheaded (or sawn asunder according to Niccolò Barbaro), whereas Rizzo was impaled. In the early days of the siege in May 1453, contingents of the Ottoman army made mop-up operations at minor fortifications like Therapia and Studium. The surrendered soldiers, some 40 individuals from each place, were impaled.

Civil crimes

Within the Ottoman Empire, some civil crimes (rather than rebel activity/treasonous behavior), such as highway robbery, might be punished by impalement. For some periods at least, executions for civil crimes were claimed to have been rather rare in the Ottoman Empire. Aubry de La Motraye lived in the realm for 14 years from 1699 to 1713 and claimed that he had not heard of twenty thieves in Constantinople during that time. As for highway robbers, who surely had been impaled, Aubry heard of only 6 such cases during his residence there. Staying at Aleppo from 1740–54, Alexander Russell notes that in the 20 years gone by, there were no more than "half a dozen" public executions there. Jean de Thévenot, traveling in the Ottoman Empire and its territories like Egypt in the late 1650s, emphasizes the regional variations in impalement frequency. Of Constantinople and Turkey, de Thévenot writes that impalement was "not much practised" and "very rarely put in practice." An exception he highlighted was the situation of Christians in Constantinople. If a Christian spoke or acted out against the "Law of Mahomet", or consorted with a Turkish woman, or broke into a mosque, then he might face impalement unless he converted to Islam. In contrast, de Thévenot says that in Egypt impalement was a "very ordinary punishment" against the Arabs there, whereas Turks in Egypt were strangled in prison instead of being publicly executed like the natives. Thus, the actual frequency of impalement within the Ottoman Empire varied greatly, not only from time to time, but also from place to place, and between different population groups in the empire.

Highway robbers were still impaled into the 1830s, but one source says the practice was rare by then. Travelling to Smyrna and Constantinople in 1843, Stephen Massett was told by a man who witnessed the event that "just a few years ago", a dozen or so robbers were impaled at Adrianople. All of them, however, had been strangled prior to impalement. Writing around 1850, the archaeologist Austen Henry Layard mentions that the latest case he was acquainted with happened "about ten years ago" in Baghdad, on four rebel Arab sheikhs.

Impalement of pirates, rather than highway robbers, is also occasionally recorded. In October 1767 Hassan Bey, who had preyed on Turkish ships in the Euxine Sea for a number of years, was captured and impaled, even though he had offered 500,000 ducats for his pardon.

Klephts and rebels in Greece

During the Ottoman rule of Greece, impalement became an important tool of psychological warfare, intended to put terror into the peasant population. By the 18th century, Greek bandits turned guerrilla insurgents (known as klephts) became an increasing annoyance to the Ottoman government. Captured klephts were often impaled, as were peasants that harbored or aided them. Victims were publicly impaled and placed at highly visible points, and had the intended effect on many villages who not only refused to help the klephts, but would even turn them in to the authorities. The Ottomans engaged in active campaigns to capture these insurgents in 1805 and 1806, and were able to enlist Greek villagers, eager to avoid the stake, in the hunt for their outlaw countrymen.

Impalement was, on occasion, aggravated with being set over a fire, the impaling stake acting as a spit, so that the impaled victim might be roasted alive. Among other severities, Ali Pasha, an Albanian-born Ottoman noble who ruled Ioannina, had rebels, criminals, and even the descendants of those who had wronged him or his family in the past, impaled and roasted alive. Thomas Smart Hughes, visiting Greece and Albania in 1812–13, says the following about his stay in Ioannina:

Here criminals have been roasted alive over a slow fire, impaled, and skinned alive; others have had their extremities chopped off, and some have been left to perish with the skin of the face stripped over their necks. At first I doubted the truth of these assertions, but they were abundantly confirmed to me by persons of undoubted veracity. Some of the most respectable inhabitants of loannina assured me that they had sometimes conversed with these wretched victims on the very stake, being prevented from yielding to their torturing requests for water by fear of a similar fate themselves. Our own resident, as he was once going into the serai of Litaritza, saw a Greek priest, the leader of a gang of robbers, nailed alive to the outer wall of the palace, in sight of the whole city.

During the Greek War of Independence (1821–1832), Greek revolutionaries or civilians were tortured and executed by impalement. A German witness of the Constantinople massacre (April 1821) narrates the impalement of about 65 Greeks by Turkish mob. In April 1821, thirty Greeks from the Ionian island of Zante (Zakynthos) had been impaled in Patras, in front of the British consulate. This was recorded in the diary of the French consul Hughes Pouqueville and published by his brother François Pouqueville. Athanasios Diakos, a klepht and later a rebel military commander, was captured after the Battle of Alamana (1821), near Thermopylae, and after refusing to convert to Islam and join the Ottoman army, he was impaled. Diakos became a martyr for a Greek independence and was later honored as a national hero. Non-combatant Greeks (elders, monks, women etc.) were impaled around Athens during the first year of the revolution (1821).

Rebels elsewhere in the Ottoman Empire

Impaling perceived rebels was an attested practice in other parts of the empire as well, such as the 1809 quelling of a Bosnian revolt, and during the Serbian Revolution (1804–1835) against the Ottoman Empire, about 200 Serbs were impaled in Belgrade in 1814. Historian James J. Reid, in his Crisis of the Ottoman Empire: Prelude to Collapse 1839–1878, notes several instances of later use, in particular in times of crises, ordered by military commanders (if not, that is, directly ordered by the supreme authority possessed by the sultan). He notes late instances of impalement during rebellions (rather than cases of robbery) like the Bosnian revolt of 1852, during the Cretan insurrection of 1866–69, and during the insurrections in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1876–77. In the Nobel Prize-winning novel The Bridge on the Drina, by Ivo Andrić, in the third chapter is described impalement of a Bosnian Serb, who was trying to sabotage the bridge's construction.

Occurrences in genocides

Impalement was also purported during the Assyrian and Armenian Genocides.

Aurora Mardiganian, a survivor of the Armenian Genocide of 1915–1923, claimed that sixteen young Armenian girls were "crucified" by Ottomans. The film Auction of Souls (1919), which was based on her book Ravished Armenia, showed the victims being nailed to crosses. However, almost 70 years later Mardiganian claimed that the scene was inaccurate:

"The Turks didn't make their crosses like that. The Turks made little pointed crosses. They took the clothes off the girls. They made them bend down, and after raping them, they made them sit on the pointed wood, through the vagina. That's the way they killed - the Turks. Americans have made it a more civilized way. They can't show such terrible things."

A Russian clergyman who visited ravaged Christian villages in northwestern Persia claimed that he found the remains of several impaled people. He wrote: "The bodies were so firmly fixed, in some instances, that the stakes could not be withdrawn; it was necessary to saw them off and bury the victims as they were."

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• Ranft, Michael (1769). Von den Türkischen und andern Orientalischen Begebenheiten 1767. Fortgesetzte neue genealogisch-historische Nachrichten von den vornehmsten Begebenheiten, welche sich an den europäischen Höfen zugetragen. 89. Leipzig: Heinsius. tr. 342–352.
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Web resources

• Aiolos (2004). “Turkish Culture: The Art of Impalement”. Lưu trữ bản gốc ngày 13 tháng 1 năm 2015. Truy cập ngày 13 tháng 1 năm 2015.Quản lý CS1: bot: trạng thái URL ban đầu không rõ (liên kết)
• Axinte, Adrian. “Dracula: Between myth and reality”. Stanford University. Truy cập ngày 1 tháng 3 năm 2013.
• Bible, ESV (2012). “Book of Esther 5, English Standard Version”. BibleGateway.com. Truy cập ngày 1 tháng 3 năm 2013.
• Bible, NIRV (2012). “Book of Esther 5, New International Readers' Version”. Biblica.com. Truy cập ngày 1 tháng 3 năm 2013.
• Harper, Robert Francis, translator (1904). “The Code of Hammurabi”. Truy cập ngày 1 tháng 3 năm 2013.Quản lý CS1: nhiều tên: danh sách tác giả (liên kết)
• Shaw, Benjamin (2012). “Was Haman Hanged or Impaled?”. ligonier.org. Truy cập ngày 1 tháng 3 năm 2013.
• Sowards, Steven W. (2009). “The Serbian Revolution and the Serbian State”. Twenty-Five Lectures on Modern Balkan History (The Balkans in the Age of Nationalism). Michigan State University Libraries. Truy cập ngày 1 tháng 3 năm 2013.
• WW2, People's War (2005). “Japanese torture techniques”. BBC. Truy cập ngày 1 tháng 3 năm 2013.