Xem mã nguồn của Thành viên:Wolf20482/Thử nghiệm trên người phi đạo đức

{{mô tả ngắn|Thử nghiệm trên người vi phạm các nguyên tắc của y đức}}
'''Thử nghiệm trên người phi đạo đức''' là [[thử nghiệm trên người]] vi phạm các nguyên tắc của [[y đức|đạo đức y tế]]. Những thực hành như vậy bao gồm việc từ chối bệnh nhân quyền [[đồng ý]], sử dụng các khuôn khổ [[giả khoa học]] như [[khoa học chủng tộc]] và [[tra tấn y tế|tra tấn]] những người dưới lý do nghiên cứu. Trong [[Chiến tranh thế giới thứ hai]], [[Tội ác chiến tranh của Nhật Bản|Đế quốc Nhật Bản]] và [[Thí nghiệm trên người của Đức Quốc xã|Đức Quốc xã]] thực hiện các thí nghiệm tàn bạo đối với tù nhân và dân thường thông qua các nhóm như [[Đơn vị 731]] hoặc các cá nhân như [[Josef Mengele]]; [[Quy tắc Nuremberg]] được phát triển sau chiến tranh vì các thí nghiệm của Đức Quốc xã. Các quốc gia đã tiến hành những thí nghiệm tàn bạo đối với những nhóm dân cư bị gạt ra ngoài lề xã hội. Ví dụ gồm [[thí nghiệm vô nhân đạo trên người tại Hoa Kỳ]] trong [[Dự án MKUltra]] và [[nghiên cứu về bệnh giang mai Tuskegee]], và ngược đãi người dân bản địa ở Canada và Úc. [[Tuyên bố của Helsinki]], được phát triển bởi [[Hiệp hội Y khoa Thế giới]] (WMA), được nhiều người coi là tài liệu nền tảng về [[đạo đức nghiên cứu]].<ref>[http://www.wma.net/e/press/2000_8.htm WMA Press Release: WMA revises the Declaration of Helsinki. 9 October 2000] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927052340/http://www.wma.net/e/press/2000_8.htm |date=27 tháng 9 năm 2006 }}</ref><ref name="Bošnjak">{{Chú thích tạp chí |first1=Bošnjak |last1=Snežana |year=2001 |title=The declaration of Helsinki: The cornerstone of research ethics |journal=Archive of Oncology |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=179–84 |url=http://scindeks.ceon.rs/article.aspx?artid=0354-73100103179B&lang=en}}</ref><ref name="Tyebkhan 2003">{{chú thích tạp chí |last1=Tyebkhan |first1=G |title=Declaration of Helsinki: the ethical cornerstone of human clinical research |journal=Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology |volume=69 |issue=3 |pages=245–7 |year=2003 |pmid=17642902}}</ref>

==Đức Quốc xã==
{{main|Thí nghiệm trên người của Đức Quốc xã}}

Đức Quốc xã đã thực hiện thí nghiệm trên người trên một số lượng lớn tù nhân (bao gồm cả trẻ em), hầu hết là trên [[người Do Thái]] từ khắp Châu Âu, nhưng cũng bao gồm [[Người Digan]], [[Sinti]], [[Người Ba Lan]], [[Tội ác của Đức Quốc xã đối với tù binh Liên Xô|Tù binh Liên Xô]], người đồng tính luyến ái và người Đức tàn tật, trong các [[Trại tập trung của Đức quốc xã|trại tập trung]] chủ yếu vào đầu những năm 1940, during [[World War II]] and [[the Holocaust]]. Prisoners were [[coercion|forced]] into participating; they did not willingly volunteer and no [[informed consent|consent]] was given for the procedures. Typically, the experiments resulted in [[death]], [[Trauma (medicine)|trauma]], [[illness]], shortening of life, [[disfigurement]], or permanent [[disability]], and as such are considered as examples of [[medical torture]] since the participants had to endure mass amounts of pain.

At [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz]] and other German camps, under the direction of [[Eduard Wirths]], selected inmates were subjected to various hazardous experiments that were designed to help German military personnel in combat situations, develop new weapons, aid in the recovery of military personnel who had been injured, and to advance the racial ideology backed by the Third Reich.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10005168 |title=Nazi Medical Experimentation |access-date=23 March 2008 |work=US Holocaust Memorial Museum}}</ref> [[Aribert Heim]] conducted similar medical experiments at [[Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp|Mauthausen]]. [[Carl Værnet]] is known to have conducted experiments on homosexual prisoners in attempts to "cure" homosexuality.

After the war, these crimes were tried at what became known as the [[Doctors' Trial]], and the abuses perpetrated led to the development of the [[Nuremberg Code]] of [[medical ethics]].<ref name="Angel of Death: Josef Mengele">{{cite web|title=Angel of Death: Josef Mengele|url=http://auschwitz.dk/Mengele.htm|publisher=Auschwitz website |access-date=11 March 2013}}</ref> During the Nuremberg Trials, 23 Nazi doctors and scientists were tried for the unethical treatment of concentration camp inmates, who were often used as research subjects with fatal consequences. Of those 23, 16 were convicted (15 were convicted for the unethical treatment, while one of them was only convicted of SS membership), 7 were condemned to death, 9 received prison sentences from 10 years to life, and 7 were acquitted.<ref>{{cite book | last= Mitscherlich | first = A |author2=Mielke F | chapter = Epilogue: Seven Were Hanged|editor1= Annas GJ |editor2=Grodin MA | title = The Nazi Doctors And The Nuremberg Code - Human Rights in Human Experimentation | location = New York | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] | year = 1992 | pages = [https://books.google.com/books?id=4P04DuPIfAYC&pg=PA105#v=onepage&q&f=false 105–107]}}</ref>

===Before World War II===
The [[Law for the Prevention of Genetically Defective Progeny]], passed on 14 July 1933, legalized the involuntary sterilization of persons with diseases claimed to be hereditary: weak-mindedness, schizophrenia, alcohol abuse, insanity, blindness, deafness, and physical deformities. The law was used to encourage growth of the Aryan race through the sterilization of persons who fell under the quota of being genetically defective.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Gardella | first1 = JE | year = 1999 | title = The cost-effectiveness of killing: an overview of Nazi "euthanasia | journal = Medical Sentinel | volume = 4 | pages = 132–5 }}</ref> 1% of citizens between the age of 17 to 24 had been sterilized within two years of the law passing. Within four years, 300,000 patients had been sterilized.<ref>Dahl M. [Selection and destruction-treatment of "unworthy-to-live" children in the Third Reich and the role of child and adolescent psychiatry], Prax Kinderpsychol Kinderpsychiatr 2001;50:170-91.</ref> From about March 1941 to about January 1945, [[Forced sterilization|sterilization]] experiments were conducted at Auschwitz, Ravensbrück, and other places by [[Carl Clauberg]].<ref name="trials">{{cite web |title=Introduction to NMT Case 1: U.S.A. v. Karl Brandt et al. |work=Harvard Law Library, Nuremberg Trials Project: A Digital Document Collection|url=http://nuremberg.law.harvard.edu/php/docs_swi.php?DI=1&text=medical |access-date=23 March 2008 }}</ref> The purpose of these experiments was to develop a method of sterilization which would be suitable for sterilizing millions of people with a minimum of time and effort. These experiments were conducted by means of [[X-ray]], surgery and various [[medication|drugs]]. Thousands of victims were sterilized. Aside from its experimentation, the Nazi government sterilized around 400,000 people as part of its [[compulsory sterilization]] program.<ref>{{cite web |author=Piotrowski, Christa |title=Dark Chapter of American History: U.S. Court Battle Over Forced Sterilization |date=21 July 2000 |work=CommonDreams.org News Center |url=http://www.commondreams.org/views/072100-106.htm |access-date=23 March 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080415181618/http://www.commondreams.org/views/072100-106.htm |archive-date=15 April 2008 }}</ref> Intravenous injections of solutions speculated to contain [[iodine]] and [[silver nitrate]] were successful, but had unwanted side effects such as vaginal bleeding, severe abdominal pain, and cervical cancer.<ref>{{cite news |author=Meric, Vesna |title=Forced to take part in experiments |date=27 January 2005 |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4212061.stm }}</ref> Therefore, [[gamma radiation|radiation]] treatment became the favored choice of sterilization. Specific amounts of exposure to radiation destroyed a person’s ability to produce ova or sperm. The radiation was administered through deception. Prisoners were brought into a room and asked to complete forms, which took two to three minutes. In this time, the radiation treatment was administered and, unknown to the prisoners, they were rendered completely sterile. Many suffered severe [[radiation burns]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Medical Experiments at Auschwitz |work=Jewish Virtual Library |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/aumed.html |access-date=23 March 2008 }}</ref>

[[Eugen Fischer]] began sterilization experimentation in German-occupied [[South West Africa]] during World War I. <!--Expand - when was this done and what was being studied? This is very indirect--> A supporter of forced sterilization as a means to prevent the growth of inferior populations and a member of the Nazi Party, Fischer focused his experimentation on [[mixed-race]] children in order to justify the Nazi Party's ban on [[interracial marriage]]. As a result of Fischer's research in Namibia, Germany prohibited marriages between people of different races in its colonies.<ref>Friedlander, Henry. 1997. ''The Origins of Nazi Genocide: From Euthanasia to the Final Solution', University of North Carolina Press</ref>

===During World War II===
[[File:Child survivors of Auschwitz.jpeg|thumb|Jewish twins were kept alive to be used in [[Josef Mengele]]'s medical experiments. These children from [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz]] were liberated by the Red Army in January 1945.]]
The ''[[Luftwaffe]]'' performed a series of 360 to 400 experiments at [[Dachau concentration camp|Dachau]] and [[Auschwitz]], in which [[hypothermia]] was induced in 280 to 300 victims.<ref name=Bogod>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2044.2004.04034.x|pmid = 15549970|title = The Nazi Hypothermia Experiments: Forbidden Data?|journal = Anaesthesia|volume = 59|issue = 12|pages = 1155–1156|year = 2004|last1 = Bogod|first1 = David|doi-access = free}}</ref><ref name="BERGER" /> These were conducted for the [[Nazi]] high command to simulate the conditions the armies suffered on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]], as the German forces were ill-prepared for the cold weather they encountered. Many experiments were conducted on captured Russian troops; the Nazis wondered whether their genetics gave them superior resistance to cold.<ref name="NOVA">{{cite web |author=Tyson, Peter |title=Holocaust on Trial: The Experiments |work=NOVA Online |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/holocaust/experiside.html |access-date=23 March 2008 }}</ref> Approximately 100 people are reported to have died as a result of these experiments.<ref>Neurnberg Military Tribunal, Volume I · [http://www.mazal.org/archive/nmt/01/NMT01-T200.htm Page 200]</ref>

In early 1942, prisoners at Dachau concentration camp were used by Sigmund Rascher in experiments to aid German pilots who had to [[ejection seat|eject]] at high altitudes. A [[pressure vessel|low-pressure chamber]] containing these prisoners was used to simulate conditions at altitudes of up to 20,000&nbsp;m (66,000&nbsp;ft).<ref name=Cockburn>{{cite book |last=Cockburn |first=Alexander |title=Whiteout:The CIA, Drugs, and the Press |url=https://books.google.com/?id=s5qIj_h_PtkC&pg=PA149&dq=%22sigmund+rascher%22+brain |year=1998 |publisher=Verso |isbn=1-85984-139-2 }}</ref> Of the 200 subjects, 80 died outright, and the others were executed.<ref name="NOVA"/>

Other experiments included: experiments on twins (such as sewing twins together in attempts to create [[conjoined twins]]),<ref>[http://www.longwood.k12.ny.us/lhs/science/mos/twins/mengele.html Josef Mengele and Experimentation on Human Twins at Auschwitz] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150414074936/http://www.longwood.k12.ny.us/lhs/science/mos/twins/mengele.html |date=2015-04-14 }}, ''Children of the Flames; Dr. Josef Mengele and the Untold Story of the Twins of Auschwitz'', Lucette Matalon Lagnado and Sheila Cohn Dekel, and ''Mengele: the Complete Story'' by Gerald Posner and John Ware.</ref><ref name="WEAK">{{cite book |last=Black |first=Edwin |title=War Against the Weak: Eugenics and America's Campaign to Create a Master Race |url=https://books.google.com/?id=qfliJPdl9V4C&pg=PA358&lpg=PA358&dq=mengele+conjoined+sew |access-date=14 April 2008 |year=2004 |publisher=Thunder's Mouth Press |location=United States |isbn=1-56858-258-7}}</ref><ref name=Berenbaum194>{{cite book |author=Berenbaum, Michael |title=The world must know: the history of the Holocaust as told in the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |publisher=Little, Brown |location=Boston |year=1993 |pages=194–5 |isbn=0-316-09134-0 }}</ref> an experiment in repeated head injury which drove a boy insane,<ref name=Small>Small, Martin; Vic Shayne. [https://books.google.com/books?id=kaIYMRYufh0C&lpg=PA131&ots=mpeA8ZjW3q&dq=%22Dr.%20wichtmann%22&pg=PA135#v=onepage&q=%22Dr.%20wichtmann%22&f=false "Remember Us: My Journey from the Shtetl through the Holocaust"], Page 135, 2009.</ref> experiments at [[Buchenwald concentration camp|Buchenwald]] where poisons were secretly administered in food,<ref name="trials"/> experiments to test the effect of various pharmaceutical preparations on [[phosphorus]] burns induced with material from [[incendiary bomb]]s,<ref name="trials"/> experiments at Ravensbrück to investigate the effectiveness of [[sulfonamide (medicine)|sulfonamide]] after infection with [[bacterium|bacteria]] such as ''[[Clostridium perfringens]]'' (the causative agent in [[gas gangrene]]) and ''[[Clostridium tetani]]'' (the causative agent in [[tetanus]]),<ref name="Schaefer">Schaefer, Naomi. ''[http://www.thenewatlantis.com/archive/5/schaefer.htm The Legacy of Nazi Medicine]'', ''The New Atlantis'', Number 5, Spring 2004, pp. 54–60.</ref><ref name=Spitz>{{cite book |last=Spitz |first=Vivien |title=Doctors from Hell: The Horrific Account of Nazi Experiments on Humans |url=https://archive.org/details/doctorsfromhellh00spit |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/doctorsfromhellh00spit/page/4 4] |quote=sulfonamide nazi tetanus. |year=2005 |publisher=Sentient Publications |isbn=1-59181-032-9 }}</ref> experiments conducted to attempt treatments of [[chemical burns]] induced by [[sulfur mustard|mustard gas]] and similar compounds,<ref name="trials"/> and experiments at Dachau to study various methods of making [[sea water]] drinkable.<ref name="NOVA"/><ref name="ETHIC">{{cite web |author=Cohen, Baruch C. |title=The Ethics Of Using Medical Data From Nazi Experiments |work=Jewish Law: Articles |url=http://www.jlaw.com/Articles/NaziMedEx.html |access-date=23 March 2008 }}</ref>

Many of the subjects died as a result of the experiments, while many others were executed after the tests were completed to study the effect [[post-mortem examination|post mortem]].<ref name="CHILD">{{cite web |author=Rosenberg, Jennifer |title=Mengele's Children – The Twins of Auschwitz |work=about.com |url=http://history1900s.about.com/od/auschwitz/a/mengeletwins.htm |access-date=23 March 2008 }}</ref> Those who survived were often left mutilated, suffering permanent disability, weakened bodies, and mental distress.<ref name="NOVA"/><ref>{{cite web |title=Sterilization Experiments |work=Jewish Virtual Library |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/sterilexp.html |access-date=23 March 2008 }}</ref>

The results of the Dachau freezing experiments have been used in some modern research into the treatment of [[hypothermia]], with at least 45 publications having referenced the experiments since the [[Second World War]].<ref name="BERGER">{{cite journal |title=Nazi Science — The Dachau Hypothermia Experiments |author=Robert L. Berger, M.D. |year=1990 |journal=The New England Journal of Medicine |volume=322 |issue=20|pages=1435–1440 |doi=10.1056/NEJM199005173222006 |pmid=2184357}}</ref> This, together with the recent use of data from Nazi research into the effects of [[phosgene]] gas, has proven controversial and presents an [[medical ethics|ethical]] dilemma for modern physicians who do not agree with the methods used to obtain this data.<ref name="ETHIC"/> Some object on an ethical basis, and others have rejected Nazi research purely on scientific grounds, pointing out methodological inconsistencies. In an often-cited review of the Dachau hypothermia experiments, Berger states that the study has "all the ingredients of a scientific fraud" and that the data "cannot advance science or save human lives."<ref name="BERGER"/>

Several Nazi experimenters were after the war employed by the United States government in [[Operation Paperclip]] and later similar efforts.

==Japan==

===Empire of Japan===
[[File:Unit 731 - Complex.jpg|thumb|Japanese Unit 731 Complex that used humans for experimentation for biological and chemical weapons, as well as live vivisections and other experiments]]
Human subject research in Japan began in World War II. It continued for some years after. [[Unit 731]], a department of the [[Imperial Japanese Army]] located near [[Harbin]] (then in the puppet state of [[Manchukuo]], in northeast China), experimented on prisoners by conducting [[vivisection]]s, dismemberments, and bacterial inoculations. It induced epidemics on a very large scale from 1932 onward through the [[Second Sino-Japanese war]].<ref name="gold"/> It also conducted biological and chemical weapons tests on prisoners and captured POWs. With the expansion of the empire during [[World War II]], similar units were set up in conquered cities such as [[Nanking]] ([[Unit 1644]]), [[Beijing]] ([[Unit 1855]]), [[Guangzhou]] ([[Unit 8604]]) and [[Singapore]] ([[Unit 9420]]). After the war, Supreme Commander of the Occupation [[Douglas MacArthur]] gave immunity in the name of the [[United States]] to [[Shiro Ishii]] and all members of the units in exchange for all of the results of their experiments.<ref name="gold">{{cite book | last = Gold | first = H | isbn = 0-8048-3565-9 | title = Unit 731 Testimony | year = 2003 | pages = [https://books.google.com/books?id=cprBEpxvexgC&pg=PA109#v=onepage&q&f=false 109] | publisher = [[Tuttle Publishing]] | edition = 5}}</ref> The United States blocked [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] access to this information. The Soviets prosecuted some of the Unit 731 members during its [[Khabarovsk War Crime Trials]].

In November 2006, Doctor [[Akira Makino]] confessed to Kyodo news that he had performed surgery and amputations on condemned prisoners, including women and children, in 1944 and 1945 while he was stationed on [[Mindanao]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Japanese doctor admits POW abuse |publisher=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6185442.stm |date=26 November 2006}}</ref> Most of Makino's victims were [[Moro people|Moro Muslims]].<ref>[http://www.bt.com.bn/focus/2007/10/31/a_life_haunted_by_wwii_surgical_killings AFP ''A life haunted by WWII surgical killings'' 2007.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141213021214/http://www.bt.com.bn/focus/2007/10/31/a_life_haunted_by_wwii_surgical_killings |date=2014-12-13 }}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140317024425/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5ht5P8U54dLa7dH9mqjKyurq0zQMw?hl=en AFP ''Japanese veteran haunted by WWII surgical killings'' 2007.]</ref><ref>[http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2007/11/06/2003386494 Ozawa ''Japanese war veteran speaks of atrocities in the Philippines'' 2007.]</ref><ref>[http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/world/dissect-them-alive-chilling-imperial-that-order-could-not-be-di/story-e6frg6so-1111113061584 Parry, "The Australian" ''Dissect them alive: chilling Imperial that order could not be disobeyed'' 2007.]</ref><ref>[http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/news/world/asia/article2606909.ece Parry, "The Times" ''Dissect them alive: order not to be disobeyed'' 2007.]</ref> In 2007, Doctor [[Ken Yuasa]] testified to ''[[The Japan Times]]'' and said that he believes that at least 1,000 persons working for the [[Shōwa period|Shōwa]] regime, including surgeons, conducted surgical research on mainland China.<ref>{{cite news |last=Hongo |first=Jun |quote=I was afraid during my first vivisection, but the second time around, it was much easier. By the third time, I was willing to do it. |title=Vivisectionnist recalls his day of reckoning |publisher=[[The Japan Times]] |url=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20071024w1.html}}</ref>

===State of Japan===
In incidents throughout the 1950s, former Unit 731 members infected prisoners and mental health patients with deadly diseases.<ref>{{cite book | title = ''日本弁護士連合会『人権白書昭和43年版』日本弁護士連合会、''| year = 1968 | pages = 126–136}}</ref> In 1958, a large number of infants were brought to Kobe Medical School and forcibly administered sugar by having needles inserted through their noses and into their stomachs. A tube was inserted into their anuses to determine how the sugar was processed by their digestive systems. Many of the infants experienced diarrhea and anal bleeding. The parents were never informed that their children were being used as test subjects.<ref>
清水昭美『増補・生体実験』三一新書、1979年；日比逸郎「臨床研究と生体実験」『ジュリスト臨時増刊・医療と人権』(No.548)、有斐閣、1973年11月、pp.18-23</ref>

== Aboriginal Australians ==
In the 1920s and 1930s, [[Aboriginal Australians]] were subject to medical experiments on how they experienced pain and where body measurements and blood samples were forcibly taken. The experiments were motivated by a system{{Citation needed|date=July 2019}} of [[scientific racism]] and were carried out by researchers from the [[University of Adelaide]]. In 2002, the vice chancellor of the university described the experiments as "degrading and in some cases barbarous" and the school issued a formal apology to Aboriginal and [[Torres Strait Islander]] groups.<ref>{{cite journal | title = The Cultivation of Whiteness: Science, Health and Racial Destiny in Australia (book review) |journal = BMJ : British Medical Journal| author = Joff Lelliott | publisher = British Medical Journal | year = 2003 | volume = 326 | number = 7394 | page = 888|pmc = 1125797|doi = 10.1136/bmj.326.7394.888}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.adelaide.edu.au/news/news314.html | title = APOLOGY FOR PAST EXPERIMENTS ON ABORIGINAL PEOPLE | date = 2002-02-08 | authors = University of Adelaide | access-date = 2018-08-04}}</ref>

== Indigenous populations in Canada ==
{{see also|Canadian Indian residential school system}}
Canada has historically carried out unethical medical experiments on indigenous populations in concert with its policies of forced [[cultural assimilation]]. In 1933, about 600 Native children from the reserves near [[Qu'Appelle, Saskatchewan]], were enrolled in a trial to test the [[BCG vaccine|tuberculosis vaccine]]. In both the control and treatment groups nearly a fifth died from exposure, malnutrition, and other causes. Parental consent was not sought for indigenous children, though it was sought for the non-indigenous.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Lux, M. | year = 1998 | title = Perfect subjects: race, tuberculosis, and the Qu'Appelle BCG Vaccine Trial | journal = Canadian Bulletin of Medical History | volume = 15 | number = 2 | pages = 277–295| doi = 10.3138/cbmh.15.2.277 | pmid = 11624067 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | author = Leslie Young | title = What happened to Jim? Experiments on Canada's indigenous populations | url = https://globalnews.ca/news/2503875/what-happened-to-jim-experiments-on-canadas-indigenous-populations/ | publisher = Global News | date = 2016-02-08 | access-date = 2018-08-04}}</ref>
Between 1942 and 1952, malnourished children from six residential schools were used in experiments without consent or parental notification. They were split into [[treatment and control groups]] and denied increases in nutrition, despite the researchers believing malnutrition to be a serious problem in the schools, as they were used to determine whether certain combinations of supplements mitigated problems. Children died, developed [[anemia]], and were in some cases denied dental care previously available to them as they developed [[tooth decay|cavities]] and [[gingivitis]]. The experiments were run by the Department of Indian Affairs of Canada and directed by Percy Moore and [[Frederick Tisdall]], a former president of the [[Canadian Paediatric Society]].<ref>{{cite journal | title = Canada's shameful history of nutrition research on residential school children: the need for strong medical ethics in Aboriginal health research |journal = Paediatrics & Child Health|volume = 19|issue = 2| author = Noni E MacDonald | date = 2014 | publisher = Oxford University Press | page = 64|pmc = 3941673|pmid = 24596474|doi = 10.1093/pch/19.2.64}}</ref> In 2014, the Society released a statement outlining guidelines for community-based participatory research involving [[Inuit]], [[Métis]], and [[First Nations]] youth.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Lola T. Baydala and Jill M. Starkes | title = Health research involving First Nations, Inuit and Métis children and their communities. | journal = Paediatrics & Child Health | volume = 19 | pages = 99–102 | number = 2 | year = 2014 |pmc = 3941676| pmid = 24596485 | doi = 10.1093/pch/19.2.99 }}</ref>

==Guatemala==
{{main|Syphilis experiments in Guatemala}}
From 1946 to 1948 U.S. scientific researchers in Guatemala infected hundreds of mental patients with [[sexually transmitted diseases]] (STD). Researchers from the U.S. Public Health Service (PHS) conducted experiments on approximately 1,500 male and female patients housed at Guatemala's National Mental Health Hospital.<ref name=CDCFactScheet>{{cite web | url = https://www.hhs.gov/1946inoculationstudy/factsheet.html | title = Fact Sheet on the 1946-1948 U.S. Public Health Service Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD) Inoculation Study | publisher = [[United States Department of Health and Human Services]] | access-date = 2013-04-15 | date = n.d. | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130425164618/http://www.hhs.gov/1946inoculationstudy/factsheet.html | archive-date = 2013-04-25 | url-status = dead }}</ref> The scientists injected the patients with gonorrhea and syphilis—and encouraged many of them to pass the disease on to others. The experiments were done in cooperation with the Guatemalan government. The PHS carried out the experiments under the guise of syphilis inoculations. In 2010 these experiments were revealed by Susan Reverby of [[Wellesley College]], who was researching a book on the [[Tuskegee syphilis experiment]]s. The US [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[Hillary Clinton]] issued an official apology to Guatemala.<ref name="nyt20101001">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/02/health/research/02infect.html?_r=0 |title=U.S. Apologizes for Syphilis Experiment |date=1 October 2010 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=2 October 2010}}</ref> President [[Barack Obama]] apologized to President [[Álvaro Colom]], who had called these experiments "a [[crimes against humanity|crime against humanity]]".<ref name="BBC20101001">{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-11457552 |title=US medical tests in Guatemala 'crime against humanity' |date=1 October 2010|publisher=BBC News |access-date=2 October 2010}}</ref>

==North Korea==
{{main|Human experimentation in North Korea}}

==Sweden==
The [[Vipeholm experiments]] were a series of human experiments where patients of Vipeholm Hospital for intellectually disabled in [[Lund]], [[Sweden]], were fed large amounts of sweets to provoke [[dental caries]] between 1945 and 1955. The experiments were sponsored both by the sugar industry and dentist community, in an effort to determine whether [[carbohydrates]] affected the formation of cavities. The experiments provided extensive knowledge about [[dental health]] and resulted in enough empirical data to link the intake of sugar to [[dental caries]].<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=13196991 |year=1954 |last1=Gustafsson |first1=BE |last2=Quensel |first2=CE |last3=Lanke |first3=LS |last4=Lundqvist |first4=C |last5=Grahnen |first5=H |last6=Bonow |first6=BE |last7=Krasse |first7=B |title=The Vipeholm dental caries study; the effect of different levels of carbohydrate intake on caries activity in 436 individuals observed for five years |volume=11 |issue=3–4 |pages=232–64 |journal=Acta Odontologica Scandinavica |doi=10.3109/00016355308993925}}</ref> However, today they are considered to have violated the principles of [[medical ethics]].{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}

==Soviet Union==
{{Main|Poison laboratory of the Soviet secret services}}

==United Kingdom==
De-classified documents from [[The National Archives (United Kingdom)|The National Archives]] revealed that during the 20th century, scientists from [[Porton Down]] conducted experiments on British and Indian soldiers to test the effects of [[mustard gas]]. From 1916 until 1989, more than 20,000 British servicemen were subjected to [[chemical warfare]] trials. The experiments on Indian servicemen were conducted in [[Rawalpindi]], [[British Raj|British India]] during the 1930's and 40's. It is unclear whether the Indian trial subjects, some of whom were hospitalised by their injuries, were all volunteers.<ref>{{cite web|title=Military scientists tested mustard gas on Indians|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2007/sep/01/india.military |website=The Guardian |accessdate=13 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.voanews.com/english/news/a-13-2007-09-02-voa11.html | title = Report: Britain Tested Chemical Weapons on Indian Colonial Troops | publisher = [[Voice of America]] | date = 2007-09-02 | access-date = 2011-06-02 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120209033840/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/a-13-2007-09-02-voa11.html | archive-date = 2012-02-09 | url-status = dead }}</ref> In the 1950s, [[Royal Air Force]] engineer [[Ronald Maddison]] was killed when he was exposed to 200 milligrams of [[sarin]] at [[Porton Down]]. He had believed that he was testing a cure for the common cold, and in 2004 a High Court judgement ruled that his death was "unlawful".<ref>{{cite web | url =http://www.aerotoxic.org/download/docs/reports_and_evidence/OPReport.pdf | title =Organophosphate Report | work =Aerotoxic Association }}{{Dead link|date=July 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=no }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Nerve gas death was 'unlawful'|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/wiltshire/4013767.stm|publisher=BBC News|access-date= 2013-01-20|date=15 November 2004}}</ref>

Between 1940 and 1979, the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]] secretly dispersed potentially dangerous chemicals and micro-organisms across much of the country to evaluate readiness against a biological attack from the Soviet Union. They dropped [[Zinc cadmium sulfide|zinc cadmium sulphide]] from airplanes and dispersed it by land to track the spread of fluorescent particles, and also spread ''[[e.coli]]'', ''[[bacillus globigii]]'', and ''[[serratia marcescens]]'' bacteria.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Barnett |first1=Antony |title=Millions were in germ war tests |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2002/apr/21/uk.medicalscience |website=The Guardian |publisher=Guardian News & Media Limited |access-date=16 May 2020}}</ref>

==United States==
{{Main|Unethical human experimentation in the United States}}
<!--SEE CITATIONS IN MAIN ARTICLE ABOVE-->
Since the late 19th century, numerous human experiments were performed in the United States, which were later characterized as [[medical ethics|unethical]]. They were often performed illegally, without the knowledge, [[consent]], or [[informed consent]] of the test subjects. Examples have included the deliberate infection of people with deadly or debilitating [[diseases]], exposing people to [[biological weapons|biological]] and [[chemical weapons]], [[human radiation experiments]], injecting people with [[toxic]] and [[radioactive]] chemicals, [[surgical]] experiments, [[interrogation]]/[[torture]] experiments, tests involving [[mind-altering substances]], and a wide variety of others. Many of these tests were performed on [[children]] and [[mentally disabled]] individuals. In many of the studies, a large number of the subjects were [[poverty|poor]], [[racial minorities]], and/or [[Incarceration|prisoners]]. Often, subjects were sick or disabled people, whose doctors told them that they were receiving "medical treatment". They were used as the subjects of harmful and deadly experiments, without their knowledge or consent. In reaction to this, interest groups and institutions have worked to design policies and oversight to ensure that future human subject research in the United States would be ethical and legal.

During World War II, [[Fort Detrick]] in Maryland was the headquarters of US biological warfare experiments. [[Operation Whitecoat]] involved the injection of infectious agents into military forces to observe their effects in human subjects.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/file_on_4/4701196.stm | work= [[BBC News]] | title=Hidden history of US germ testing | date= 2006-02-13 | access-date=2010-05-04 }}</ref>

Public outcry over the discovery of government experiments on human subjects led to numerous congressional investigations and hearings, including the [[Church Committee]], [[United States President's Commission on CIA activities within the United States|Rockefeller Commission]], and [[Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments]], amongst others. These inquiries have not resulted in prosecutions. Not all subjects involved in the trials have been compensated or notified that they were subjects of such trials.

In the 1950s and 1960s, [[Chester M. Southam]] injected [[HeLa]] cancer cells into healthy individuals, cancer patients, and prison inmates from the [[Ohio Penitentiary]].{{sfn|Skloot|2010|p=128-134}} This experiment raised many bioethical concerns involving [[informed consent]], [[Primum non nocere|non-maleficence]], and [[Beneficence (ethics)|beneficence]]. Some of Southam's subjects, namely those that already had cancer, were unaware that they were being injected with malignant cells.{{sfn|Skloot|2010|p=128}} Additionally, in one of these patients, the cells metastasized to her lymph nodes.{{sfn|Skloot|2010|p=128}}

In 1962, the Kefauver-Harris Drug Amendment was passed by the United States Congress. This amendment made changes to the Federal Food Drug & Consumer Act by requiring drug companies to prove both safety and effectiveness of their products. Consequently, drugs were required to have [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) approval before being marketed to consumers. Additionally, informed consent became a participation requirement and rules were put into place. This regulation was influenced by the results of 1950 use of [[thalidomide]] in Western Europe for pregnant women. They were prescribed the [[sedative]] thalidomide, which was inaccurately marketed as a [[morning sickness]] treatment. Women gave birth to more than 12,000 infants born with deformities due to effects from the drug in utero.

In the [[Tuskegee syphilis experiment]] from 1932 to 1972, the United States Public Health Service contracted with the [[Tuskegee Institute]] for a long-term study of syphilis. During the study, more than 600 African-American men were studied who were not told they had syphilis. In an effort to better understand the disease, researchers denied the men access to the known treatment of the antibiotic [[penicillin]]. They recorded observations of the effects of the disease over time. Under the impression they were being treated for "bad blood", the participants were given free healthcare by the government.<ref>Gray, Fred D. ''The Tuskegee Syphilis Study'', Montgomery: New South Books, 1998.</ref> As ineffective treatment was given to the subjects, two-thirds of the group had died by the end of the 40-year experiment. A leak in 1972 led to cessation of the study and severe legal ramifications. It has been widely regarded as the "most infamous biomedical research study in U.S. history".<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Katz RV, Kegeles SS, Kressin NR, etal |title=The Tuskegee Legacy Project: willingness of Minorities to Participate in Biomedical Research |journal=J Health Care Poor Underserved |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=698–715 |date=November 2006 |pmid=17242525 |pmc=1780164 |doi=10.1353/hpu.2006.0126 }}</ref> Because of the public outrage, in 1974 Congress passed the [[National Research Act]], to provide for protection of human subjects in experiments. The National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research was established. It was tasked with establishing the boundary between research and routine practice, the role of [[risk-benefit analysis]], guidelines for participation, and the definition of informed consent. Its ''[[Belmont Report]]'' established three tenets of ethical research: respect for persons, [[beneficence (ethics)|beneficence]], and justice.<ref>{{citation | url = http://videocast.nih.gov/pdf/ohrp_belmont_report.pdf | author = National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research | date = 1978-09-30 | title = The Belmont Report: Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research | publisher = [[United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare]] | author-link = National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research }}</ref>

[[Project MKUltra]] — sometimes referred to as the "CIA's mind control program" — was the code name given to an illegal program of experiments on human subjects, designed and undertaken by the United States [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA). Experiments on humans were intended to identify and develop drugs and procedures to be used in interrogations and torture, in order to weaken the individual to force confessions through [[mind control]]. Organized through the [[Office of Scientific Intelligence|Scientific Intelligence Division]] of the CIA, the project coordinated with the [[U.S. Army Biological Warfare Laboratories|Special Operations Division]] of the U.S. Army's [[Chemical Corps]].<ref>[http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/radiation/dir/mstreet/commeet/meet4/trnsct04.txt Advisory on Human Radiation Experiments, July 5, 1994, National Security Archives, retrieved January 16, 2014] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130713145805/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/radiation/dir/mstreet/commeet/meet4/trnsct04.txt |date=July 13, 2013 }}</ref> The program began in the early 1950s, was officially sanctioned in 1953, was reduced in scope in 1964, further curtailed in 1967 and officially halted in 1973.<ref>{{cite news |title=C.I.A Says It Found More Secret Papers on Behavior Control: Senate Panel Puts Off Hearing to Study Data Dozen Witnesses Said To Have Misled Inquiry C.I.A. Tells Of Finding Secret Data |author=Jo Thomas |newspaper=New York Times |date=3 Sep 1977 }}</ref> The program engaged in many illegal activities;<ref name="nytimes.com"/><ref>[http://www.hss.doe.gov/healthsafety/ohre/roadmap/achre/chap3_4.html Chapter 3: Supreme Court Dissents Invoke the Nuremberg Code: CIA and DOD Human Subjects Research Scandals<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130331150116/http://www.hss.doe.gov/healthsafety/ohre/roadmap/achre/chap3_4.html |date=2013-03-31 }}</ref><ref>[http://publicintelligence.net/ssci-mkultra-1977/ U.S. Senate Report on CIA MKULTRA Behavioral Modification Program 1977 | Public Intelligence<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> in particular it used unwitting U.S. and Canadian citizens as its test subjects, which led to controversy regarding its legitimacy.<ref name="nytimes.com">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/packages/pdf/national/13inmate_ProjectMKULTRA.pdf|title=Project MKUltra, the Central Intelligence Agency's Program of Research into Behavioral Modification. Joint Hearing before the Select Committee on Intelligence and the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research of the Committee on Human Resources, United States Senate, Ninety-Fifth Congress, First Session|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office (copy hosted at the New York Times website)|date=August 8, 1977|access-date=2010-04-18}}</ref>{{rp|page=74}}<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB54/ | title = Science, Technology and the CIA: A National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book | last = Richelson | first = JT (ed.) | access-date = 2009-06-12 | date = 2001-09-10 | publisher = [[George Washington University]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.hss.energy.gov/healthsafety/ohre/roadmap/achre/chap3_4.html | title = Chapter 3, part 4: Supreme Court Dissents Invoke the Nuremberg Code: CIA and DOD Human Subjects Research Scandals | work = Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments Final Report | access-date = 2005-08-24 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070430101158/http://hss.energy.gov/healthsafety/ohre/roadmap/achre/chap3_4.html | archive-date = 2007-04-30 | url-status = dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | publisher = [[United States Congress]] | title = The Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, Foreign and Military Intelligence | work = [[Church Committee]] report, no. 94-755, 94th Cong., 2d Sess. | location = [[Washington, D.C.]]. | year = 1976 | url = http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/church/reports/book1/html/ChurchB1_0200b.htm | page = 392}}</ref> MKUltra used numerous methodologies to manipulate people's mental states and alter brain functions, including the surreptitious administration of drugs (especially [[LSD]]) and other chemicals, [[hypnosis]], [[sensory deprivation]], isolation, [[verbal abuse|verbal]] and [[sexual abuse]], as well as various forms of [[torture]].<ref>{{cite book| author=Dick Russell| title=On the trail of the JFK assassins| publisher=Skyhorse Publishing| url=https://archive.org/details/ontrailofjfkassa00russ| url-access=registration| quote=MKULTRA hypnosis.| year=2008| page=[https://archive.org/details/ontrailofjfkassa00russ/page/273 273]| isbn=9781602393226}}</ref>

===Beecher Paper===
In a 1966 paper noted Harvard anesthesiologist [[Henry K. Beecher]] described 22 published medical studies in which patients had been subjects with no expected benefit to the patient of the experiment.<ref name="Beecher1966">{{Cite journal
| last1 = Beecher | first1 = H. K.
| title = Ethics and Clinical Research
| doi = 10.1056/NEJM196606162742405
| journal = New England Journal of Medicine
| volume = 274
| issue = 24
| pages = 1354–1360
| year = 1966
| pmid = 5327352
| pmc = <!--none-->
| url =https://www.who.int/docstore/bulletin/pdf/2001/issue4/vol79.no.4.365-372.pdf
}} Reprint in Harkness, Lederer & Wikler, 2001, {{PMID|11357216}}</ref> This has been characterized as unethical. For example, patients infused with live cancer cells had been told in one study that they were receiving "some cells", without being told this was cancer. Though identities of the authors and institutions had been stripped, the 22 studies were later identified as having been conducted by mainstream researchers and published in prestigious journals within approximately the previous decade. The 22 cases had been selected from a set of 50 that Beecher had collected. He presented evidence that such unethical studies were widespread and represented a systemic problem in medical research rather than exceptions.<ref name="Beecher1966"/><ref name="Rothman1987">{{Cite journal | last1 = Rothman | first1 = D. J. | title = Ethics and Human Experimentation | doi = 10.1056/NEJM198711053171906 | journal = New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 317 | issue = 19 | pages = 1195–1199 | year = 1987 | pmid = 3309660 | url = http://tracerkinetics.engr.iupui.edu/emorris_web/Ethics%20Course%2009/Journal%20articles/Ethics%20and%20Human%20Experimentation%20Henry%20Beecher%20revisited.pdf | access-date = 2015-09-02 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120206183801/http://tracerkinetics.engr.iupui.edu/emorris_web/Ethics%20Course%2009/Journal%20articles/Ethics%20and%20Human%20Experimentation%20Henry%20Beecher%20revisited.pdf | archive-date = 2012-02-06 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

Beecher had been writing about human experimentation and publicizing cases that he considered to be bad practice for nearly a decade. His 1965 briefing to science writers and his 1966 paper gained widespread news coverage and stimulated public reaction.<ref name="Rothman1987"/><ref name="Kopp1999">{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1097/00000542-199906000-00034
| last1 = Kopp
| first1 = V.
| title = Henry Knowles Beecher and the development of informed consent in anesthesia research
| journal = Anesthesiology
| volume = 90
| issue = 6
| pages = 1756–1765
| year = 1999
| pmid = 10360876
}}</ref> The paper has been described as "the most influential single paper ever written about experimentation involving human subjects."<ref name="Harkness2001">{{Cite journal | last1 = Harkness | first1 = J. | last2 = Lederer | first2 = S. | last3 = Wikler | first3 = D. | title = Laying ethical foundations for clinical research | journal = Bulletin of the World Health Organization | volume = 79 | issue = 4 | pages = 365–366 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11357216 | pmc = 2566394}}</ref> The United States [[Office for Human Research Protections]] credits Beecher through this paper as "ultimately contributing to the impetus for the first [[National Institutes of Health|NIH]] and [[Food and Drug Administration|FDA]] regulations."<ref>{{cite web |work=Institutional Review Board Guidebook |title=History of the Human Subjects Protection System |url=https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/archive/irb/irb_introduction.htm |publisher=[[Office for Human Research Protections]] |year=1993 | access-date = 2011-06-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130218150358/https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/archive/irb/irb_introduction.htm |archive-date=2013-02-18 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Beecher was instrumental in developing solutions to such abuses. He noted that a common element in these studies was that some experimental subjects, such as military personnel or mentally handicapped children in institutions, were not in a position to freely decline consent.<ref name="Rothman1987"/> Beecher believed that rules requiring informed consent were not alone sufficient, as truly informed consent was an unattainable ideal. He worked both to define the rules and conditions for informed consent, and to establish [[institutional review board]]s as an additional layer of oversight regarding research protocols.<ref name="Rothman1987"/><ref name="Kopp1999"/>

==International drug trials==

Since the late 20th century, African nations have often been the sites of clinical testing by large international pharmaceutical companies. In some cases, rural communities have developed iatrophobia (fear of doctors) after undergoing or learning of highly controversial medical experimentation. The fundamental distrust lies in the potential confrontation of [[Hobson's choice]]: "Experimental medicine or no medicine at all". Multiple cases of ethically questionable experiments have been documented.<ref>Washington, Harriet A. ''[[Medical Apartheid]]'', Anchor Books, 2006, p394</ref>

In the late 20th century, [[Depo-Provera]] was clinically tested on Zimbabwean women. Once approved, the drug was used as a population control measure in the 1970s. Commercial farm owners put pressure on native women workers to accept the use of Depo-Provera.<ref name="Kaler, Amy 1998. p 347">{{cite journal | last1 = Kaler | first1 = Amy | year = 1998 | title = A Threat to the Nation and a Threat to the Men: the Banning of Depo-Provera in Zimbabwe, 1981 | journal = [[Journal of Southern African Studies]] | volume = 24 | issue = 2| page = 347 | doi=10.1080/03057079808708580}}</ref> Population control interests motivated many of the family planning programs. This led to its eventual ban in Zimbabwe.<ref name="Kaler, Amy 1998. p 347"/>

A 1996 clinical trial in [[Kano (city)|Kano]], Nigeria <!--when? and how many were treated in the study?--> involving the Pfizer drug [[Trovan]] to treat meningitis resulted in 200 children being disabled and the deaths of 11. Because of these casualties, the [[Abdullahi v. Pfizer, Inc.|Nigerian government sued Pfizer]] over whether it had appropriately obtained informed consent.<ref name="Washington p392-393">Washington, Harriet A. ''[[Medical Apartheid]]'', Anchor Books, 2006, p392-393</ref><ref name="news.bbc.co.uk">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6719141.stm |title=Africa &#124; Nigeria sues drugs giant Pfizer |publisher=[[BBC News]] |date=2007-06-05 |access-date=2010-11-12}}</ref> Pfizer argued in court that it had met all regulations for drug testing. Many Nigerians mistrust the use of medical vaccines and also refuse to participate in medical trials.<ref name="Washington p392-393"/>

In 1994 United States drug companies began conducting trials of the drug [[Zidovudine|AZT]] on [[HIV]]-positive African subjects with the goal of developing treatments to reduce the transmission of HIV/AIDS during childbirth.<ref name="ReferenceA">Meier, Benjamin Mason: "International Protection of Persons Undergoing Medical Experimentation: Protecting the Right of Informed Consent," ''[[Berkeley Journal of International Law]]'' [1085-5718] Meier yr:2002 vol:20 iss:3 pg:513 -554</ref> With funding from the [[National Institutes of Health]] (NIH) and [[Centers for Disease Control]] (CDC), the program tested over 17,000 [[Zimbabwean]] women for the efficacy of AZT in preventing transmission of HIV/AIDS during childbirth. Half of the women were given a [[placebo]] rather than the drug, and the subjects were not informed of the potential dangers of the treatment. According to [[Peter Lamptey]], the head of the AIDS Control and Prevention Program, "if you interviewed the people in the study, most wouldn't understand to what they had actually consented."<ref name="ReferenceA"/> An estimated 1000 newborns of women in the study contracted HIV/AIDS, although this could have been avoided by treating the women with known drugs. The testing was ceased in 1998 when the CDC claimed to have obtained sufficient data from experiments in [[Thailand]].<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

==See also==
* [[Medical torture]]
** [[Pharmacological torture]]
* [[Patient abuse]]
* [[Political abuse of psychiatry]]
* [[Project Coast]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

[[Category:Clinical research ethics]]
[[Category:Human subject research]]